Job and Task Analysis
"Work is dynamic
- tasks change, processes change, technologies change, and the knowledge
and skills required for jobs change," for this reason, to be an effective
tool for education and training, task analysis must reflect what is happening
in the real world/workplace. In an attempt to prepare workers who
are able to meet the demands of a changing, high-performance workplace,
single focused task analyses are giving way to combinations that reflect
the greater breadth and depth of skills required for the jobs of the future
( Brown, 1998, pp. 1, 4).
Standard
Occupational Classification (SOC)
http://www.bls.gov/soc/
The more current
Standard Occupational Classification (SOC)(2002) places each occupation
in one of 23 major groups; according to the United States Department of
Labor, the SOC is the new standard for all government agencies.
O*NET Online
O*NET Online (2000) is
based on data supplied by occupational analysts using sources such as the DOT
but its coding structure has been aligned to the newly revised SOC. The
O*NET database includes information on skills, abilities, knowledge, work
activities, and interests associated with occupations (p. 1).
A sample of a
detailed job description and task analysis for
Educational, Vocational, and School Counselors is available at:
http://online.onetcenter.org/report?r=1&id=280
Details Report
for:
21-1012.00 -
Educational, Vocational, and School Counselors
Counsel
individuals and provide group educational and vocational guidance services.
Tasks |
Knowledge |
Skills |
Abilities |
Work Activities |
Work Context |
Job Zone |
Interests |
Work Values |
Work Needs |
Related Occupations |
Wages & Employment
|
Tasks |
|
1) Advises counselees to assist them in developing their
educational and vocational objectives. |
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2) Advises counselees to assist them in understanding and
overcoming personal and social problems. |
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3) Collects and evaluates information about counselees'
abilities, interests, and personality characteristics, using records, tests,
and interviews. |
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4) Compiles and studies occupational, educational, and economic
information to assist counselees in making and carrying out vocational and
educational objectives. |
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5) Interprets program regulations or benefit requirements and
assists counselees in obtaining needed supportive services. |
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6) Refers qualified counselees to employer or employment
service for placement. |
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7) Conducts follow-up interviews with counselees and maintains
case records. |
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8) Establishes and maintains relationships with employers and
personnel from supportive service agencies to develop opportunities for
counselees. |
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9) Plans and conducts orientation programs and group
conferences to promote adjustment of individuals to new life experiences. |
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10) Teaches vocational and educational guidance classes. |
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11) Addresses community groups and faculty members to explain
counseling services. |
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Importance |
Knowledge |
Knowledge
Definitions |
|
96 |
Therapy and Counseling |
Knowledge of principles, methods, and procedures for diagnosis,
treatment, and rehabilitation of physical and mental dysfunctions, and for
career counseling and guidance. |
|
71 |
Psychology |
Knowledge of human behavior and performance; individual
differences in ability, personality, and interests; learning and motivation;
psychological research methods; and the assessment and treatment of
behavioral and affective disorders. |
|
71 |
Education and Training |
Knowledge of principles and methods for curriculum and training
design, teaching and instruction for individuals and groups, and the
measurement of training effects. |
|
63 |
English Language |
Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language
including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and
grammar. |
|
46 |
Personnel and Human Resources |
Knowledge of principles and procedures for personnel
recruitment, selection, training, compensation and benefits, labor relations
and negotiation, and personnel information systems. |
|
42 |
Computers and Electronics |
Knowledge of circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic
equipment, and computer hardware and software, including applications and
programming. |
|
42 |
Sociology and Anthropology |
Knowledge of group behavior and dynamics, societal trends and
influences, human migrations, ethnicity, cultures and their history and
origins. |
|
38 |
Customer and Personal Service |
Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer
and personal services. This includes customer needs assessment, meeting
quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction. |
|
33 |
Clerical |
Knowledge of administrative and clerical procedures and systems
such as word processing, managing files and records, stenography and
transcription, designing forms, and other office procedures and terminology. |
|
29 |
Administration and Management |
Knowledge of business and management principles involved in
strategic planning, resource allocation, human resources modeling,
leadership technique, production methods, and coordination of people and
resources. |
|
25 |
Mathematics |
Knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus,
statistics, and their applications. |
|
17 |
Communications and Media |
Knowledge of media production, communication, and dissemination
techniques and methods. This includes alternative ways to inform and
entertain via written, oral, and visual media. |
|
13 |
Telecommunications |
Knowledge of transmission, broadcasting, switching, control,
and operation of telecommunications systems. |
|
8 |
Economics and Accounting |
Knowledge of economic and accounting principles and practices,
the financial markets, banking and the analysis and reporting of financial
data. |
|
8 |
Law and Government |
Knowledge of laws, legal codes, court procedures, precedents,
government regulations, executive orders, agency rules, and the democratic
political process. |
|
4 |
Transportation |
Knowledge of principles and methods for moving people or goods
by air, rail, sea, or road, including the relative costs and benefits. |
|
0 |
Sales and Marketing |
Knowledge of principles and methods for showing, promoting, and
selling products or services. This includes marketing strategy and tactics,
product demonstration, sales techniques, and sales control systems. |
|
0 |
Chemistry |
Knowledge of the chemical composition, structure, and
properties of substances and of the chemical processes and transformations
that they undergo. This includes uses of chemicals and their interactions,
danger signs, production techniques, and disposal methods. |
|
0 |
Public Safety and Security |
Knowledge of relevant equipment, policies, procedures, and
strategies to promote effective local, state, or national security
operations for the protection of people, data, property, and institutions. |
|
0 |
Philosophy and Theology |
Knowledge of different philosophical systems and religions.
This includes their basic principles, values, ethics, ways of thinking,
customs, practices, and their impact on human culture. |
|
0 |
History and Archeology |
Knowledge of historical events and their causes, indicators,
and effects on civilizations and cultures. |
|
0 |
Fine Arts |
Knowledge of the theory and techniques required to compose,
produce, and perform works of music, dance, visual arts, drama, and
sculpture. |
|
0 |
Foreign Language |
Knowledge of the structure and content of a foreign
(non-English) language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of
composition and grammar, and pronunciation. |
|
0 |
Medicine and Dentistry |
Knowledge of the information and techniques needed to diagnose
and treat human injuries, diseases, and deformities. This includes symptoms,
treatment alternatives, drug properties and interactions, and preventive
health-care measures. |
|
0 |
Geography |
Knowledge of principles and methods for describing the features
of land, sea, and air masses, including their physical characteristics,
locations, interrelationships, and distribution of plant, animal, and human
life. |
|
0 |
Biology |
Knowledge of plant and animal organisms, their tissues, cells,
functions, interdependencies, and interactions with each other and the
environment. |
|
0 |
Physics |
Knowledge and prediction of physical principles, laws, their
interrelationships, and applications to understanding fluid, material, and
atmospheric dynamics, and mechanical, electrical, atomic and sub- atomic
structures and processes. |
|
0 |
Mechanical |
Knowledge of machines and tools, including their designs, uses,
repair, and maintenance. |
|
0 |
Production and Processing |
Knowledge of raw materials, production processes, quality
control, costs, and other techniques for maximizing the effective
manufacture and distribution of goods. |
|
0 |
Engineering and Technology |
Knowledge of the practical application of engineering science
and technology. This includes applying principles, techniques, procedures,
and equipment to the design and production of various goods and services. |
|
0 |
Building and Construction |
Knowledge of materials, methods, and the tools involved in the
construction or repair of houses, buildings, or other structures such as
highways and roads. |
|
0 |
Design |
Knowledge of design techniques, tools, and principles involved
in production of precision technical plans, blueprints, drawings, and
models. |
|
0 |
Food Production |
Knowledge of techniques and equipment for planting, growing,
and harvesting food products (both plant and animal) for consumption,
including storage/handling techniques. |
Classification of the O*Net Content Model
The O*Net Web Site
http://online.onetcenter.org/help/content_model/ provides the following
information describing the content of the O*Net Content Model.
The Content Model was developed using research on job and organizational
analysis. It embodies a view that reflects the character of occupations (via
job-oriented descriptors) and people (via worker-oriented descriptors). The
table below shows how the parts of the O*NET Content Model are classified.
Cross Classification Table of O*NET Occupational Information
|
Type of
Occupational Information |
|
Specificity of Application |
Job-Oriented Descriptors |
Worker-Oriented Descriptors |
|
Cross Occupation Descriptors |
Generalized Work Activities
Work Context
Organizational Context
Labor Market Information
Occupational Outlook
Wages |
Skills
Knowledges
Education
Abilities
Interests
Work Styles
Training
Experience
Licensing |
|
Occupation Specific Descriptors |
Tasks
Machines, Tools, and Equipment
Labor Market Information
Occupational Outlook
Wages |
Occupational Skills
Occupational Knowledges
Training
Experience
Licensing |
Elements of Content Model
The Content Model is organized into six major domains. These are: Worker
Characteristics, Worker Requirements, Experience Requirements, Occupation
Requirements, Occupational Characteristics, and Occupation-Specific Information.
The structure enables the user to focus on areas of information that specify the
key attributes and characteristics of workers and occupations. The following
sections briefly describe the information included within each domain.
Worker Characteristics
- enduring characteristics that might influence both performance and the
capacities to acquire knowledge and skills required for effective work
performance.
Worker characteristics comprise enduring qualities of individuals that may
influence how they approach tasks and how they acquire work-relevant knowledges
and skills. Traditionally, abilities have been the most common technique for
comparing jobs in terms of these characteristics. However, recent research
supports the inclusion of other types of worker characteristics. In particular,
interests, values, and work styles have received support in the organizational
literature. Interests and values reflect preferences for work environments and
outcomes. Work style variables represent typical procedural/process differences
in the way work is performed.
Worker Requirements
- category of descriptors referring to work-related attributes acquired and/or
developed through experience and education.
Worker requirements represent developed or acquired attributes of an individual
that may be related to performance. Knowledge represents the acquisition of
facts and principles about a domain of information. Experience lays the
foundation for establishing procedures to work with given knowledges. This set
of procedures is more commonly known as skills. Skills may be further divided
into basic skills (skills, such as reading, that facilitate the acquisition of
new knowledge) and cross-functional skills (skills, such as problem solving,
that extend across several domains of activities).
Experience Requirements
- requirements related to previous activities; explicitly linked to certain
types of work activities.
This domain will include information about the typical experiential backgrounds
of workers in an occupation or group of occupations. Certification, licensure,
and training data also will be available. For example, information about the
professional or organizational certifications required for entry and
advancement, preferred education or training, and required apprenticeships all
will be documented by this part of the model.
Occupational Characteristics
- variables that define and describe the general characteristics of occupations
that may influence occupational requirements.
Organizations do not exist in isolation. They must operate within a broader
social and economic structure. To be useful, an occupational classification
system must incorporate these global contextual characteristics. O*NET provides
this information by linking descriptive occupational information to statistical
labor market information. This includes compensation and wage data, employment
outlook, and industry size information. Much of this information is collected
outside of O*NET's immediate scope. Collaborative efforts with organizations
such as the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Department of Commerce, The
Department of Defense, America's Job Bank, The U. S. Bureau of the Census, and
The Employment and Training Administration will facilitate these labor market
information linkages.
Occupational Requirements
- a comprehensive set of variables or detailed elements that describe what
various occupations require.
This domain includes information about typical activities required across
occupations. Task information is often too specific to describe an occupation or
occupational group. The O*NET approach is to identify generalized work
activities (GWAs) or dimensions that summarize the kinds of tasks that may be
performed within multiple occupations. Using this framework it is possible to
use a single set of descriptors to describe many occupations. Contextual
variables (e.g., the physical, social, or structural context of work) that may
impose specific demands on the worker or activities are also included in this
section.
Occupation-Specific Information
- reflects variables or other Content Model elements in terms of selected or
specific occupations.
Occupation-specific information details a comprehensive set of elements that
apply to a single occupation or a narrowly defined job family. This domain
parallels other Content Model domains in that it includes requirements such as
knowledges, skills, tasks, and machines, tools, and equipment. Similarly, labor
market information defined by industry or occupation is also provided here. This
domain is particularly important when developing specific applications of O*NET
information. For example, to specify training, develop position descriptions, or
redesign jobs, it is necessary to refer to occupation-specific descriptive
information.
JOB ANALYSIS
Dictionary
of Occupational Titles (DOT)
The United
States Training and Employment Service defined job analysis as a systematic
study of the worker analyzed in terms of these categories:
-
what the worker
does in relation to data, people, and things (worker functions)
-
the methodologies
and techniques employed (worker fields)
-
the machines, tools,
equipment, and work aides used (MTEWA)
-
the materials,
products, subject matter, or services (MPSMS)
(The United States Department of
Labor, 1972, p. 1).
According to
the Department of Labor (1972, p. 4), two categories of information gathered
are identified in job analysis are:
-
work performed
(worker functions, work fields, and materials, products, subject
matter, and services)
-
worker traits (training time, aptitudes, temperaments, interests, physical demands and
environmental conditions).
The Dictionary
of Occupational Titles (DOT) (1977) used these classifications in developing
its job descriptions (p. xxix).
O*Net is the updated online version of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(DOT).TASK ANALYSIS Task analysis
is defined as the next step in the process of job analysis to identify
the details of specified tasks, including the required knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and personal characteristics required for success in the job.
Information gathered in task analysis is used to develop education and
training programs based on the realities of the job. The various
types of analysis can be used in diverse settings to promote knowledge
and skill development. Occupational analysis, designed to identify
the work needs of specific jobs by providing an outline of the necessary
tasks to be completed by workers in a business area, was initiated for
the purpose of helping management make hiring, promotion, wage, and salary
decisions.
Three popular
types of task analysis models in practice today are:
-
worker-oriented
task analysis that examines general human behaviors required of workers
in given jobs
-
job-oriented task
analysis, which examines technologies involved in the job
-
cognitive task
analysis, which examines the cognitive components associated with task
performance.
These task analysis
are further defined in the models below.
Worker-Oriented
Task Analysis
Worker-oriented
task analysis focuses on human behavior required of workers in certain
jobs. The normal method of task analysis investigates work behaviors,
which are related to them. The work behaviors can be communicated;
however, the practice in performance of a task must be observed.
The process of worker-oriented task analysis normally involves discussion
with current employees, clarification of job tasks performed by workers,
interviews with workers, review of tasks by management/ supervisors, and
surveys to determine the importance of tasks and the knowledge and skills
required.
Job-Oriented
Task Analysis
Job-oriented
task analysis examines the technologies involved on the job. Considered
a customary technique, job-oriented task analysis is an organized process
for assembling information about the vastly specific and distinctive tasks
required for particular jobs. The job-related task analysis relies
on employees and supervisors who can unequivocally state the step-by-step
cycle of job tasks and an examiner who can describe the behaviors in a
way that is understandable to employees and supervisors.
Cognitive
Task Analysis
Cognitive task
analysis, examines the logical components associated with task performance.
This analysis attempts to decide the thought processes workers follow to
perform the tasks and identify the knowledge needed to perform the tasks
at various levels, such as, novice and expert. It is a process used
to gather information on worker behavior in problem-solving situations
that highlights the interactive and constructive nature of everyday knowledge
and the social constraints that influence problem solving. Cognitive
task analysis relies on the techniques of observation and interview.
(Texas Higher
Education Coordinating Board, 1995; Brown, 1998, pp. 1- 2; Hanser, 1995;
Llorente, 1996)
Links for
More Information
Occupational
Exploration
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